Realizations Inc

Birth to Two Years

Knowledge regarding brain development during the first two years of life has been quite limited. MRI study results released in late 2008 has shown that development during this period of time is extremely dynamic, driven mainly by gray matter growth. In contrast, white matter growth was much slower. Not surprisingly, life experiences during this period impact brain development and, according to the researchers, may also play a role in neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism and schizophrenia. (Source)

Brain, Blank Slate

The infant brain is not born as a blank slate. During gestation the infants have made up their minds in the womb in a variety of different ways. (Moir, Anne, and David Jessel. Brain Sex. NY: Carol Publishing Group, 1989, 1991, p 20)

Brain

The two cerebral hemispheres contain more than half of all the brain cells. Each hemisphere is covered by a wrinkled surface area called the cortex. (Restak, Richard, MD. The Secret Life of the Brain. D.C.: The Dana Press and Joseph Henry Press, 2001, p Xv)

Today the exponential growth in knowledge in the neurosciences and biological sciences has shown how brain development in the early years can set trajectories that affect health (physical and mental), learning and behaviour for life. The new understanding about early child development and its effect on human development has profound and exponential implications. (Mustard, J. Fraser, MD. Investing in the Early Years: Closing the gap between what we know and what we do. 2008. P. 10.

http://www.thinkers.sa.gov.au/images/Mustard_Final_Report.pdf)

If a male fetus is not exposed to appropriate pre-birth hormones, his brain is likely to remain more typically female; if a female fetus is exposed to a male-pattern hormonal sequence, she is likely to be more typically masculine. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 21)

The sensory areas of the brain tend to mature during early childhood, the limbic system by puberty, and the frontal lobes somewhere between 16-18 years of age. (Goleman, Daniel, PhD. Emotional Intelligence. NY: Bantam Books, 1995, pp 226-228)

Adolescents and young adults have brains that are not “finished” yet (e.g., still myelinating) by adult standards. (Healy, Jane M., PhD. Your Child’s Growing Mind. NY: Doubleday, 1987, 1989, pp 121-123)

The infant’s ability to learn to regulate physical and emotional feelings, particular during the first year of life, can be negatively impacted if parents are depressed, mentally ill, or unavailable. The baby of a depressed mother learns diminished expectations of attention and comfort from others. (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, p 117)

Brain Early Development

Experience transmitted to the brain in early life by the sensing pathways is key for the development of the architecture and function of the brain. Experience in the early years:

• affects gene expression and the function of sensing neurons and the development of neural pathways
• shapes emotion and regulates temperament and social development
• shapes language and literacy capability, and perceptual and cognitive ability
• shapes how we cope with our daily experiences
• shapes physical and mental health in adult life, and physical activity and performance (e.g. skiing, swimming).

(Mustard, J. Fraser, MD. Investing in the Early Years: Closing the gap between what we know and what we do. 2008. P. 12.

http://www.thinkers.sa.gov.au/images/Mustard_Final_Report.pdf)

Early experiences (nurture) in early life affects gene expression, neural pathways, and brain function. This shapes:

• Temperament and social development
• Language and literacy capability
• Perceptual and cognitive ability
• How we cope with our daily experiences
• Physical and mental health and behaviour and addiction in adult life
• Physical activity and performance (e. g., skiing, skating, swimming)

(Mustard, J. Fraser, MD. Early Childhood Development: How does experience in early life affect brain development? 2008. P. 15.)

Brain Function

The brain is about 2% of total body weight. It consumes 25% of metabolic energy and 40% of blood glucose as food. During the first year of life, infants spend 50% of their metabolic energy to construct and refine brain mechanisms. Brain function can be seriously impaired if the slightest mistake occurs in these processes. (Fisher, Helen. Why We Love. NY: Henry Holt and Company, 2004, pp 140-141)

Brain function can be seriously impaired if mistakes occur in the construction and refining of brain mechanisms during first year of life. (Fisher, Helen. Why We Love. NY: Henry Holt and Company, 2004, pp 140-141)

Brain Growth

The brainstem (regulates basic functions like heart rate, body temperature, and blood pressure) grows before the mid-brain (controls sleep, appetite, and arousal). This is followed by the limbic area (center of emotional activity) and the cortex (rational and analytical processes). (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, pp 159-160)

Brain Lead or Preference

Study: Children between the ages of 2.5 and 5 years already showed clear inclinations to be either verbalizers or visualizers. (Healy, Jane M., PhD. Your Child’s Growing Mind. NY: Doubleday, 1987, 1989, p 335)

Brain Scans

Brain scanning techniques are showing just how precisely it is possible to pin down even the most sophisticated and complex functions and activities of the human brain. These include PET, MRI, fMRI, NIRS, EEG, SPECT, and MEG. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, pp 25-27)

Brain Structures

Humans possess five different brain or neural structures: four in the head (reptilian, mammalian, neocortex, pre-frontal cortex) and one in the heart (functions outside conscious awareness). (Pearce, Joseph Chilton. The Biology of Transcendence. VT: Park Street Press, 2002, pp 2-4)

Breast Fed and IQ

Breastfed babies have an IQ edge over their formula-fed peers. There are also a host of immune-system boosts that a baby receives when breastfed. Breast milk has been found to contain stem cells. (Hartley, Jo. Stem Cells Discovered in Human Breast Milk)

Breast Feeding

Breast milk contains omega-3 fatty acids (e.g., brain-building DHA), depending on the mother’s diet. Breast-fed babies. Studies: breast-fed infants have more DHA in the brain cortex than formula-fed infants, have higher developmental scores, and higher IQ scores on standard tests later in life. Breast feeding may make a difference in your baby’s brain. (Carper, Jean. Your Miracle Brain. NY: HarperCollins Publishers, 2000, pp 99-100, 286)

University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center studies: IQs of breast-fed babies are higher than that of formula-fed babies. The nutritional benefits of breast-feeding are associated with at least a 3.2 IQ point difference in cognitive development – after adjustment for key factors, such as the mother's age and intelligence, birth order, race, birth weight, gestational age, and socioeconomic status. This is in addition to a 2.1 point increase associated with maternal bonding. (Franklin Institute. The Human Brain. 2004)

Chronic Diseases

Epigenetic plasticity can lead to an array of chronic diseases in older age if adverse nutritional and environmental circumstances are present during fetal and neonatal periods of development. (Lipton, Bruce, PhD. The Biology of Belief. CA:Mountain of Love/Elite Books, 2005, pp 158-159)

Consciousness

Refer to Brain Body Communication for additional information

Communication

The child’s desire to communicate and attitude toward life can be influenced by extended separations from the mother early in life (e.g., adoption, illness). (Tomatis, Alfred A, M.D., by Editor Timothy M. Gilmore, PhD, et al. About the Tomatis Method. Canada: Listening Centre Press, 1989, pp 20-24)

Continued Brain Development

The brain structure carries on developing after birth...up until the age of three new connections are being formed, new cell networks emerging...the brain requires the right type of stimulation to promote these growing strands of brain skills such as speech and language. (Moir, Anne, and David Jessel. Brain Sex. NY: Carol Publishing Group, 1989, 1991, pp 53-55)

Cortex

A baby’s brain is nearly as smooth as its bottom because it has not experienced much learning. By the time humans are 6 years old, their brains have reached 90% of their total size. Since brain mass increases but skull size is static, folds develop in the brain’s surface and entire surface of the brain becomes more enfolded (wrinkled). (Wonder, Jacquelyn, and Priscilla Donovan. Whole Brain Thinking. NY: Ballantine Books, 1984, p 5)

Cortex, Prefrontal

Select any of the difficulties associate with adolescence (impulsiveness, erratic mood swings, rebellion against authority, poor judgment, et cetera) and you’ll find that those difficulties are the result of immaturity in the prefrontal cortex. (Restak, Richard, MD. The Secret Life of the Brain. D.C.: The Dana Press and Joseph Henry Press, 2001, p Xv)

Critical Windows

Dr. Michael Phelps, who co-invented the brain-imaging technique called the PET scan, was quote by Diane Sawyer as saying, “The development years are not just a chance to educate, they’re actually your obligation to form a brain and if you miss these opportunities then, you’ve missed them—forever.” (Conversations with brain researchers.)

Crying, Male Socialization

Both parents teach boy babies to perform rather than cry by picking up the male less frequently than the female infant when he cries. The result? By the age of 13 months, boys who are picked up less are already more likely to “tough it out” and refrain from crying. (Farrell, Warren, PhD. Why Men are the Way They Are. NY: Berkley Book, 1988, pp 113-350)

Cuddling

Male infants are cuddled less than female, although both boys and girls need the cuddling. (Gurian, Michael. The Wonder of Boys. NY: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 1996, pp 50-51)

Decision-Making

Portions of the brain related to independent capabilities tend not to develop when children are not permitted to make decisions, or are punished when they attempt to do so. (Diamond, Marian, PhD, and Janet Hopson. Magic Trees of the Mind. NY: A Dutton Book 1998, pp 128-129)

Depression

Parents who are depressed, mentally ill, retarded, or otherwise unavailable can have a profound effect on the infant’s ability to learn to regulate physical and emotional feelings, particular during the first year of life. The baby of a depressed mother learns…diminished expectations of attention and comfort from others. Babies generalize the behavior mirrored from the depressed mother to strangers. (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, p 117)

Differences

“No mind should have to beg to differ.” (Levine, Mel, MD. A Mind at a Time. NY: Simon & Schuster, 2002, p 336)

Dissociation

Chronic overactivation of neurochemical responses in the brain to threat in the brain (particularly in the earliest years of life) can result in lifelong states of either dissociation or hyperarousal (refer to hyperarousal). (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, pp 167-168)

Dominican Republic

Study: of children in Dominican Republic who appear to be female at birth, are raised as females, and then develop male genitalia at puberty and start functioning as males. (Durden-Smith, Jo, and Diane deSimone. Sex and the Brain. NY: Arbor House Publishing, 1983, pp 95-103)

Downshifting

Refer to Downshifting for additional information

Early Development Instrument (EDI)

The EDI assesses five development domains. These assessments are macro indicators for population based assessments of brain development, not diagnostic indicators for the development of individual children.

·         Physical health and wellbeing - a measure of brain development in connection with how it affects physical health, physical activity, coordination and wellbeing. Above the 90th percentile, a child is physically ready to tackle a new day at school, is generally independent, and has excellent motor skills. Below the 10th percentile, a child has inadequate fine and gross motor skills, is sometimes tired or hungry, usually clumsy, and may have flagging energy levels.

·         Social competence - Above the 90th percentile, a child never has a problem getting along, working, or playing with other children; is respectful to adults, self confident, has no difficulty following class routines, and is capable of pro-social behaviour. Below the 10th percentile, a child has poor overall social skills and exhibits regular serious problems in more than one area: getting along with other children; accepting responsibility for their own actions; following rules and class routines; and showing respect for adults, children, and others’ property. He or she lacks self confidence and self control, finds it difficult to adjust to change, and is usually unable to work independently.

·         Emotional maturity - Above the 90th percentile, a child almost never shows aggressive, anxious or impulsive behaviour, has good ability to concentrate, and is often helpful to other children. Below the 10th percentile, a child has regular problems managing aggressive behaviour, is prone to disobedience, and/or is easily distractible, inattentive, impulsive, usually unable to show helping behaviour towards other children, and is sometimes upset when left by the caregiver.

·         Language and cognitive development - Above the 90th percentile, a child is interested in books, reading and writing, rudimentary mathematics, is capable of reading and writing simple sentences and complex words, and is able to count and recognise numbers and geometric shapes. Below the 10th percentile, a child has problems in both reading/writing and numeracy, is unable to read and write simple words; is not interested in trying, is often unable to attach sounds to letters, has difficulty remembering things, counting to 20, recognising and comparing numbers, and is usually not interested in numbers.

·         Communication skills and general knowledge - Above the 90th percentile, a child has excellent communication skills, can tell a story and communicate with both children and adults, and has no problems with articulation. Below the 10th percentile, a child has poor communication skills and articulation, limited command of language, has difficulty talking to others, problems understanding and being understood, and has poor general knowledge.

(Mustard, J. Fraser, MD. Early Childhood Development: How does experience in early life affect brain development? 2008. P. 20-21.)  

Education

http://www.thinkers.sa.gov.au/images/Mustard_Final_Report.pdf)

Emotional Development

Parents who are depressed, mentally ill, retarded, or otherwise unavailable can have a profound effect on the infant’s ability to learn to regulate physical and emotional feelings, particular during the first year of life. (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, p 117)

Brain parts that process emotion grow relatively early, and a very sensitive to parental handling and feedback. (Diamond, Marian, PhD, and Janet Hopson. Magic Trees of the Mind. NY: A Dutton Book 1998, pp 124-126)

The development of a child’s emotional circuitry is impacted by the emotional environment he/she is exposed to, especially in the early years of life. (Childre, Doc and Howard Martin. The HeartMath Solution. CA: Harper SF, 1999, pp 228-230)

Emotions

Refer to Emotions Selected References for additional information

Energy

Refer to Energy and the Brain for additional information

During the first year of life, infants spend 50% of their metabolic energy to construct and refine brain mechanisms. (Fisher, Helen. Why We Love. NY: Henry Holt and Company, 2004, pp 140-141)

Environmental Influences

Environmental influences comes in two forms: shared and nonshared (e.g., shared = mother played the piano for all children, nonshared = mother no longer played tennis after children were born). Nonshared influence is second in influence after genetics, with shared influence accounting for very little. (Howard, Pierce J., PhD. The Owner’s Manual for the Brain. GA: Bard Press, 1994, 2000, p 32)

Epigenetics

Refer to Cellular Memory for additional information

Epigenetics, Science of

The study of the molecular mechanisms by which environment controls gene activity. Meaning “control above genetics,” epigenetic research has established that a variety of environmental influences (e.g., nutrition, stress, emotions) can modify genes without changing their basic blueprint and this can be passed on to future generations. (Lipton, Bruce, PhD. The Biology of Belief. CA:Mountain of Love/Elite Books, 2005, pp 67-68)

Experience

Experience provides the basis for the formation of the connections and the transformation of those connections into circuits. Change the experience and you change the brain. (Restak, Richard, MD. The Secret Life of the Brain. D.C.: The Dana Press and Joseph Henry Press, 2001, p Xiii)

Exploration, Active versus Passive

For enrichment (environmental) effects to work, the animal must actively explore the environment, not simply passively watch it. These brain alterations are no matter of tinkering. Many billions of synapses can be made or lost this way, a capacity that lasts to some extent across the life span. (Quartz, Steven R., PhD, and Terrence J. Sejnowski PhD. Liars, Lovers, and Heroes. NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2002, p 236)

Evolving Brains (see Plasticity)

Brains evolve gradually over a lifetime—good news for parents. During the first years the infant brain develops very quickly: language, cognition, perception, and the major behavioral systems are put into place, but it is the fine-tuning of these systems throughout life that ultimately accounts for who a person is. (Restak, Richard, MD. The Secret Life of the Brain. D.C.: The Dana Press and Joseph Henry Press, 2001, p Ix)

Face, Observations

Humans possess an innate predisposition to look at faces. Primitive brain regions are involved initially, while regions in the temporal cortex become more specialized throughout the first year of life. (Shreeve, James. Beyond the Brain. National Geographic, Vol. 207, No. 3, March, 2005, pp 22-23)

Face Expressions

Within minutes of birth the newborn is able to imitate facial expressions. By just six weeks after birth, the newborn returns the caregivers smile—the first sign of a positive social emotion, called positive affect by psychologists. (Quartz, Steven R., PhD, and Terrence J. Sejnowski PhD. Liars, Lovers, and Heroes. NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2002, p 173)

Face, Recognition

By six months of age infants can distinguish new faces from previously encountered faces as well as adults. (Restak, Richard, MD. The New Brain. PA: Rodale, 2003, pp 12-13)

Failure to Develop Neocortex

Interactions among brain systems can be interfered with when there is incomplete development of the reptilian and emotional brain layers—which results, then, in a failure to develop neocortical functions appropriately. (Pearce, Joseph Chilton. The Biology of Transcendence. VT: Park Street Press, 2002, pp 30-32)

Food

Refer to Nutrition and the Brain for additional information

Free Will

Refer to Brain Functions for additional information

Frontal Areas

The frontal area of the brain appears to be fully mature around age thirty. (Howard, Pierce J., PhD. The Owner’s Manual for the Brain. NY: Bard Press, 2000, p. 77)

Frontal Lobes

The frontal lobes first kick in at about six months, bringing the first glimmerings of cognition. By the age of one they are gaining control over the drives of the limbic system—if you offer two toys to a child of this age, they will make a choice rather than try to grab both. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 22)

In boys the frontal lobes of the brain mature more slowly than in girls. (Gurian, Michael. The Wonder of Boys. NY: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 1996, pp 50-51)

Garden Metaphor

Individuals are born into a garden that is capable of growing many different kinds of plants. Based on soil composition (genetics), the garden may grow some plants more successfully than others. The “life experience” of the garden (e.g., weather, care received) begins to select which plants take root, which are cultivated, and which are ignored. (Ornstein, Robert, PhD. The Roots of the Self. NY: HarperCollins Publishing, 1995, p 9)

Gender Differences

Refer to Children and the Brain for additional information

A gestational hormonal wash creates many of the differences seen (e.g., boys are superior at spatial tasks, girls are superior at speech). If a male fetus does not get the appropriate pre-birth wash, his brain is likely to remain more typically female; if a female fetus gets exposed to a male-pattern hormonal wash, she is likely to be more typically masculine. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 21)

Genes

Genes affect individual behavior by making proteins that shape the basic wiring plan and synaptic arrangement of the brain. Thus, people (and animals) can have very similar brains and yet be so different, right from the start of their lives. (LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self. NY: Penguin Books, 2002, p 4)

Genitals

Sometimes both male and female genitals are present in the body of a genetic male at birth. Sometimes the male appears female at birth and male genitals appear at puberty. (Pease, Barbara and Allan. Why Men Don’t Listen and Women Can’t Read Maps. NY: Broadway Books, 1998, pp 171-172)

Growth

New challenges throughout life can spur new brain cell growth as the brain responds to the demands laced on it. (Quartz, Steven R., PhD, and Terrence J. Sejnowski PhD. Liars, Lovers, and Heroes. NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2002, p 41)

A full 50% of baby’s brain growth has occurred by six months of age; 70% by 12 months. Any stimulation provided during the first 12 months has more impact on the brain’s growth than at any other time in the baby’s future life. (Ludington-Hoe, Susan, PhD, with Susan K. Golant, MA. How to Have a Smarter Baby. NY: Bantam Books, 1985, p 4)

Handedness

The first signs of handedness can be seen at 15 weeks’ gestation when most babies start to show a distinct preference for sucking their right thumbs. Handedness is well established by the time a baby is born. More than 90% of people in the world are right handed. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, pp 46-47)

Heart Powers

In order for the powers of the heart to develop it must, like the brain, be nurtured and be given role-modeling, otherwise the powers of the heart may be dormant for life. (Pearce, Joseph Chilton. The Biology of Transcendence. VT: Park Street Press, 2002, pp 52-54)

Hemispheres

They develop at different rates: right hemisphere develops more rapidly in the first few years of life, and then the left hemisphere becomes more dominant in terms of development. (Siegel, Daniel J., MD. The Developing Mind. NY: The Guilford Press, 1999, pp 193-194)

Hemispheres

The right hemisphere has relatively more white (myelinated) matter, while the left has more gray. The axons in the right brain are longer than in the left and connect neurons that are, on average, further away from one another. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 38)

Hemispheric Specialization

Hemispheric specialization is most likely present from birth, although actual development is shaped by demands and input to the brain. (Healy, Jane M., PhD. Your Child’s Growing Mind. NY: Doubleday, 1987, 1989, pp 136-138)

Hemispheric Style

This term relates to a person’s preferred way of processing information when there is a choice of strategy to be used. Although both hemispheres are working, one may set the tone. People vary in their ability to activate the appropriate hemisphere for differing demands. (Healy, Jane M., PhD. Your Child’s Growing Mind. NY: Doubleday, 1987, pp 136-137)

Hierarchical Development

The basic portions of the brain develop in sequence beginning with the brain stem that controls basic and essential functions required to sustain life (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate, and body temperature). Next to develop is the midbrain that controls appetite and sleep. Then the limbic brain, seat of emotion and impulse. And finally, the cortex where logic, planning, and cognition—executive functions—occur. (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, pp 32-33)

Hormones

If a male fetus does not get the appropriate pre-birth hormone treatment, his brain is likely to remain more typically female; if a female fetus gets exposed to a male-pattern hormonal sequence, she is likely to be more typically masculine. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 21)

Hormones are mind chemicals that act on the brain and tell the brain to change the body. They have a dual effect: during gestation the hormones control the way the neural networks are laid out; at puberty they will revisit the brain to switch on the network they earlier created. (Moir, Anne, and David Jessel. Brain Sex. NY: Carol Publishing Group, 1989, 1991, pp 38, 68-70)

Hunger

The mechanism by which simple, physical hunger is generated and satisfied centers on the hypothalamus. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 64)

Hyperarousal

In hyperarousal, overdevelopment of the stress response systems in the brainstem and mid-brain alters the development of higher cortical functions, creating a predisposition to act aggressively, impulsively, and reactively. The oversecretion of cortisol is believed to actually destroy synapses in some parts of the brain, particularly in the orbitofrontal system, an area involved in reading emotional responses in other people. (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, pp 167-168)

Imitating

During first few days of life an infant can imitate actions or facial gestures of adults (e.g., stick out tongue in copying of adult). By 18 months can imitate and completed observed human actions (e.g., pulling apart a toy dumbbell) but will ignore the same actions if carried out by a mechanical device. (Restak, Richard, MD. The New Brain. PA: Rodale, 2003, pp 34-35)

Impulsivity

Myelination of the frontal lobes is incomplete until full adulthood. This may be one reason that younger adults are more emotional and impulsive than those who are older. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 20)

Intelligence

Mental flexibility is the hallmark of intelligence. (Quartz, Steven R., PhD, and Terrence J. Sejnowski PhD. Liars, Lovers, and Heroes. NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2002, p 137)

Studies: Breast feeding may make a difference in the baby’s brain. Breast-fed infants showed higher developmental and intelligence scores on standard tests later in life. (Carper, Jean. Your Miracle Brain. NY: HarperCollins Publishers, 2000, pp 99-100, 286)

Intelligence Quotient

Breastfed babies have an IQ edge over their formula-fed peers. There are also a host of immune-system boosts that a baby receives when breastfed. Breast milk has been found to contain stem cells. (Hartley, Jo. Stem Cells Discovered in Human Breast Milk)

IQ and Breast Feeding

Norwegian researchers tested 345 children at the ages of 13 months and five years. The children who had been breast-fed for less than three months were more likely to score below average on mental skills at 13 months, compared to the children breast-fed for six months or longer. And at age five, this longer breast-fed group averaged eight points higher in IQ. (Franklin Institute. The Human Brain.)

Language

Infants exposed to two languages (e.g., Japanese and English) in the first seven to eight months of life will easily develop the neuron functions that can differentiate the sounds of the two languages. This sets a base for fluent mastery of both languages without an accent later in development. Individuals who develop capability for two languages early in life have a larger left temporal hemisphere of the brain than do individuals with monolingual backgrounds. This may be, in part, an explanation of why those individuals can also more easily master other languages later in life. (Mustard, J. Fraser, MD. Early Childhood Development: How does experience in early life affect brain development? 2008. P. 12.)

Unimpaired human beings are born with the brain capacity for learning any language in the world. (Restak, Richard, MD. The New Brain. PA: Rodale, 2003, pp 10-11)

At birth the brain is capable of distinguishing the sound units, or phonemes, of all human languages. During the first six months of life of exposure to language, the tunes itself to recognize the phonemes that are present in its native language, discarding those that aren’t. (Quartz, Steven R., PhD, and Terrence J. Sejnowski PhD. Liars, Lovers, and Heroes. NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2002, p 42)

The language areas become active about eighteen months after birth. The one that confers understanding (Wernicke’s area) matures before the one that produces speech (Broca’s area), so there is a short time when toddlers understand more than they can say—a frustrating condition that probably does much to fuel the tantrums that typify the “terrible twos.” (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 20)

During first few weeks of life a babbling baby utters almost every sound of every known language. Later, as child master a single language, the ability to make some sounds vanish. This is an example of pruning. (Brynie, Faith Hickman. 101 Questions Your Brain Has Asked About Itself But Couldn’t Answer, Until Now. CT: Millbrook Press, 1998, p 21)

Babies who learn two languages at the same time have a single brain region for both languages. (Greenwood-Robinson, Maggie, PhD. 20 / 20 Thinking. NY: Avery, Putnam Special Markets, 2003, p 249)

By 12 months infants have discovered the sounds (phonemes) used to convey meaning in their native language. After this time they lose the ability to distinguish non-native speech contrasts. Language understanding becomes lateralized to the left hemisphere by the age of two. (Greenfield, Susan, Con. Ed. Brain Power. Great Britain: Element books Limited, 1999, pp 53, 163)

The male brain is wired differently from female brain. Language is a more difficult skill for boys to acquire and use effectively in learning than it is for girls. (Gurian, Michael, PhD, and Patricia Henley, with Terry Trueman. Boys and Girls Learn Differently! CA: Jossey-Bass, 2001, p 110)

About the same time as the language areas become active, myelinization begins in the prefrontal lobes. The reticular formation (e.g., maintaining attention), usually only becomes fully myelinated at or after puberty, which is why prepubescent children have a short attention span. The frontal lobes do not become fully myelinated until full adulthood (e.g., younger adults are more emotional and impulsive than older individuals). (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 20)

Laughter

Refer to Laughter – Humor and the Brain for additional information

Laughter appears to be modeled by the mother during the first year and stabilizes in the infant by the second year. (Martin, Rod A. White Papers. Do Children Laugh Much More Often than Adults Do?)

Laughter in infants occurs about a month after smiling. May be observed as early as 5-9 weeks of age. By 4 months it is firmly in place. (Rose, Kenneth Jon. The Body in Time. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1988, pp 150-152)

Studies: babies under age 1 were 15 times more like to laugh if tickled by their mothers than by strangers. Babies must feel safe in order to laugh. (Dossey, Larry, MD. Healing Beyond the Body. Boston: Shambhala Publications, Inc., 2001, pp 133-149)

Laughter emerges early in human development, being reliably elicited through tickling by about 4 months of age (Sroufe & Waters, 1976). Children born both deaf and blind also laugh at roughly the same age (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989), indicating that this signal is deeply rooted in human biology (Deacon, 1989). (Bachorowsk, Jo-Anne I, PhD, and Michael J. Owren, PhD. Laughing Matters. Psychological Science Agenda, Volume 18: No. 9, September 2004.)

By about age 12 months a child begins to laugh at unusual or inappropriate adult behavior (e.g., funny faces, walking on all fours). By age two they begin to create their own juxtapositions and laugh at incongruities. (Branson, Roy, PhD. The Sacredness of Laughter. WA: Spectrum, Vol. 26, No. 4, January 1998, pp 45-46)

Louis Franzini, PhD, author of Kids Who Laugh: How to Develop Your Child's Sense of Humor: laughter is critical to a child’s development. It plays n important role in stress diffusion, developing self-esteem, learning to problem solve, and honing social skills. (Abedon, Emily Pearlman. Why Laughter Is a Sign of Learning.)

Learning

Refer to Learning and the Brain for Additional information

The brain is most teachable during periods of high myelin and dendritic growth such as: 3-10, months, 2-4 years, 6-8 years, 10-12 Years (more girls), 14-16 years (more boys). (Healy, Jane M., PhD. Your Child’s Growing Mind. NY: Doubleday, 1987, 1989, pp 86-88)

Learning, Gestational

Refer to Brain Development, Fetal for additional information

Left Handedness

Studies:  About 10% of people are left handed, 20% of twins. Left-handers tend to die about 9 years sooner than right-handers. Left-handedness has been linked to a variety of physical abnormalities, most of which can be traced to development or immune system dysfunction (e.g., asthma, bowel and thyroid complaints, myopia, dyslexia, migraine, stuttering, and allergies). (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, pp 46-47)