Realizations Inc

Hallucinations

The majority of hallucinations (in this country) are auditory, because people in this culture do not pay much attention to the auditory system. In other cultures, hallucinations will tend to cluster in other sensory systems. (Bandler, Richard, and John Grinder. Frogs into Princes. UT: Real People Press. 1979, p 50)

Doppelgangers—apparitions that look precisely like oneself—are probably produced by disruption to areas where the body map overlaps on the visual association area. (Carter, Rita, PhD. Editor. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 127)

Hallucinations are exceptionally intense self-generated sensory experiences. Children who play with seemingly invisible playmates, for example, may actually be seeing these friends as clearly as they see real people (Carter, Rita, PhD. Editor. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 127)

One way to resolve the problem of mixed sensory messages arriving at the brain is to literally shut one of the dimensions—the verbal input, the tonal input, the body movements, the touch, or the visual input—out of consciousness. (Bandler, Richard, and John Grinder. Frogs into Princes. UT: Real People Press. 1979, p 50)

Hallucinations, Auditory

The voices heard by schizophrenics are their own. They generate speech in one part of their brain and experience it as auditory input in another. (Carter, Rita, PhD. Editor. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p. 127)

Hallucinations, Schizophrenic

PET Scan Studies:  The frontal cortex was not active during schizophrenic hallucinations. During auditory hallucinations the primary auditory cortex showed no activity, but the auditory-language association cortex in the temporal lobe became more active. (Schwartz, Jeffrey M., MD, and Sharon Begley. The Mind & the Brain. NY Regan Books, 2002, pp 313-315)

Healing Woundedness

Refer to Personal Growth and Recovery Selected References

Hemisphere Damage

If one hemisphere is injured, the other can reorganize to take on some opposite-hemisphere tasks, depending on the age at injury. (Restak, Richard, MD. The Secret Life of the Brain. Washington D.C.: The Dana Press and Joseph Henry Press, 2001, p 48)

Hyperactivity

Hyperactivity may result when the mother’s emotional state during the child’s gestation was marked by excessive fear, anger, or anxiety. (Healy, Jane M., PhD. Your Child’s Growing Mind. NY: Doubleday, 1987, 1989, pp 13-15)

Hyperlexia

Most hyperlexics can be placed somewhere along a spectrum consisting of autistics at one end and at the other end children who have problems with spoken language and communication. Hyperlexic readers are unusual because they don’t have to be taught how to read. Their problem involves speaking and understanding the speech of others. (Restak, Richard, MD. The Secret Life of the Brain. Washington D.C.: The Dana Press and Joseph Henry Press, 2001, pp 65-66)

Hysterical Paralysis

Several brain states reduce or remove free will. People with hysterical paralysis can’t move even though the affected body parts and their connections to the brain appear to be intact. Hysteria may be related to the “play dead” mechanism that occurs in some small mammals when they are in jeopardy. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 191)

Injury

Children who suffer major brain damage to the left hemisphere when young can adapt; language moves over to the right. By age 12-13 this flexibility diminishes. Sometimes another part of the brain can take over from the damaged part, complete recovery is more likely in children. (Ornstein, Robert, PhD. The Roots of the Self. NY: HarperCollins, 1995, pp 11, 84, 101)

Insomnia

Terminal insomnia (e.g., you wake up before the alarm goes off and can’t get back to sleep again) can be a sign of pre-depression or depression if it is a frequent happening. Sleep initiation (e.g., difficulty falling asleep) can be a sign of anxiety and a busy life. (Bost, Brent W., MD, FACOG. Hurried Woman Syndrome. NY: Vantage Press, 2001, pp 17-18)

Kleinfelter’s Syndrome

Some individuals have only one sex chromosome (e.g., XXX, XO) and are typically raised as girls; and some have three (e.g., XXY, XYY) and are typically raised as boys. (Durden-Smith, Jo, and Diane deSimone. Sex and the Brain. NY: Arbor House Publishing, 1983, pp 70-80)

Krabbe Disease

Krabbe disease is a rare, incurable genetic disorder caused by a deficiency of an enzyme that is necessary for myelin metabolism. This can cause deterioration of the myelin sheath and death of brain cells. It affects both the central and peripheral nervous systems. Symptoms may appear during the first six months of life, during adolescence, or adulthood. (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. NINDS Krabbe Disease Information Page. http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/krabbe/krabbe/htm  Accessed 2007.)

Learning Disorders

The brain is just over 60% fat and needs omega-3 acids to promote optimal brain performance. Some conditions (e.g., depression, ADHD, learning/behavioral disorders) are linked to a lack of omega-3 acids. (Gurian, Michael, PhD, and Patricia Henley, with Terry Trueman. Boys and Girls Learn Differently! CA: Jossey-Bass, 2001, pp 88-89)

Mania

Too much dopamine seems to cause overexcitement, euphoria, and exaggerated convictions of meaningfulness (mania). (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 66)

Manic-depression

Disconnected from or lacking a right hemisphere, the left behaves like the manic half of a manic-depressive, while a solo right emotes like the depressive side. (Wonder, Jacquelyn, and Priscilla Donovan. Whole Brain Thinking. NY: Ballantine Books, 1984, p 41)

Maslach Burnout Inventory

The Maslach Burnout Inventory weighs the effects of emotional exhaustion, (hallmark symptom), depersonalization, and reduced sense of personal accomplishment). It has become the standard tool for measuring burnout in research on the syndrome. (The Inventory Site)

Melatonin

Women with ovulation problems and anorexia nervosa (a characteristic feature of which is amenorrhoea) may have very high levels of melatonin. Also refer to Seasonal Affective Disorder and Sperm Counts. (Discover Color Therapy. Helen Graham. Ulysses Press, (Berkeley CA) 1998, p 15)

Mental Disorders

National Institutes of Mental Health, 2002 report: in any given year an estimated 22% of Americans aged 18 and older suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder. (Brooks, Robert, PhD, and Sam Goldstein, PhD. The Power of Resilience. NY: Contemporary Books, McGraw Hill, 2004, pp x-xii)

Mental Illness

A person’s temperamental “style” is responsible to some extent for the type of mental illness the person develops (in the event of a psychological breakdown). Temperament is defined biologically, partly genetically based traits that reflect individual differences in brain structure and function. (Claridge, Gordon. Origins of Mental Illness. MA: Malor Book, 1995, x-xi)

Mental Retardation

Dendritic spines are tiny compartments that protrude from the dendrites of neurons that “receive” inputs from most excitatory synapses in the brain. Dendritic spines grow during normal maturation of the brain but are lost or abnormal in shape in many human neurological diseases, including mental retardation and dementia. Dendritic spines are mobile (e.g., they change their number and shape in response to the brain’s experience and to electrical signaling in the brain). (Sheng, Dr. Morgan. Brain Science Institute. Dendritic Spines - Tiny Structures in the Brain for Communication and Information Storage. May 2005. Article.)

Metachromatic Leukodystrophy (MLD)

Metachromatic Leukodystrophy, caused by an enzyme deficiency that allows sulfatides to accumulate in the nervous sytem and damage the myelin sheath, is a slowly progressive genetic disorder. Symptoms may appear during the first four years of life for late infantile MLD, between ages 6 and 16 for late-stage juvenile MLD, and after age 16 for adult disease. Symptoms may include decline in school or work performance, loss of metnal functions and muscle control, behavioral problems, and seizures. ( U.S. National Library of Medicine. Metchromatic Leukodystrophy. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001205.htm  Accessed 2007.)

Migraines

Migraine sufferers often have a very highly specialized visual state of consciousness. Their bodies may be trying to give them information about something that needs to be attended to. Migraines tend to respond quickly and easily to reframing. (Bandler, Richard, and John Grinder. Reframing, Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning. UT: Real People Press, 1982, p 138)

Listen to music (e.g., classical, easy listening) may be as effective or more effective when compared to biofeedback techniques. (Bricklin, Mark, et al. Positive Living and Health. PA: Rodale Press, 1990, p 233)

Studies by Nouchine Hadjikhani, MD, of The Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston: People with migraines have differences in an area of the brain that helps process sensory information, including pain. Comparing 24 people with migraine to 12 people without migraine,  the somatosensory cortex area of the brain was an average of 21 percent thicker in those with migraine.  (Science Daily. Brain Differences Found in People with Migraine. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071119170231.htm)

Mood Alterations

Serotonin, a neurotransmitter, is linked with disordered mood swings. (Benson, Herbert, MD., with Marg Stark. Timeless Healing: The Power and Biology of Belief. NY: Scribner, 1996, pp 70-75)

Motion Sickness

Electrogastrogrophy Studies: In visually induced motion sickness studies there is a shift in the dominant basal electrical activity. The 3 cycles per minute activity decrease and the 4–9 cycles per minute activity increase. (Cheung, Bob, and Peter Vaitkus. Perspectives of electrogastrography and motion sickness. Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 1999. Article.)

Multiple Personality Disorder

MPD was first recorded case in 1817 but came to public attention with the film, “The Three Faces of Eve,” 1957. There may be as many as 1% of population in the USA affected by the disorder. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. Rita Carter. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 175)

There are several types of amnesia. MPD is a serious form of amnesia where a person has two or more distinct identities (e.g., portrayed in books/movies such as Sybil, Three Faces of Eve). (Newletter. On the Brain. CA: 2005, p 4) www.PositScience.com.

See also Dissociative Identity Disorder.

Multiple Personality Disorder

People with PMD can exhibit entirely different personalities at different times. Each “alter” may have its own name, its own view of the world, and its own personal history, and a different sex. One study of 100 cases found the average number of alters to be 13. (Refer to DID for additional information.) (Carter, Rita, Ed. Exploring Consciousness. CA: University of California Press, 1998, pp 264-267)

In some individuals, multiple personalities are less well integrated or are more excessive, as in Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD) or Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), which may affect 1% of the population. One personality may be near sighted and one farsighted. Molecules of emotion likely trigger these changes. (Pert, Candace, PhD. Your Body is Your Subconscious Mind. Audio Cassettes. CO: Sounds True, 2000.)

Multiple Personalities

There appear to be cases where consciousness can split into two or more independent systems, such as multiple personalities, rather than remaining a single mental system. (Wilson, Timothy D. Strangers to Ourselves. England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002, pp 49-50)

Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis is associated with demyelinization of neuron axons. (Greenfield, Susan, Con. Ed. Brain Power. Great Britain: Element Books Limited, 1999, p 139)

A disorder in which the immune system attacks the myelin sheath around neuronal axons. (Marcus, Gary, PhD. The Birth of the Mind. NY: Basic Books, 2004, pp 117-119)

Narcolepsy

Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder related to the control of sleep and wakefulness. (Narcolepsy Information Page at the NIDS. Refer to web site.)  www.narcolepsy.com

Neuron Migration

During gestation neurons migrate to various regions of the brain. Proper migration is important for the development of normal brain function. There is a lengthening list of disorders, including autism, dyslexia, epilepsy, and schizophrenia that may be caused in part by migration problems. (Ratey, John J., MD. A User’s Guide to the Brain. NY: Vintage Books, 2002, p 23)

Errors in migration of neurons can show up later in conditions such as epilepsy, dyslexia, and perhaps schizophrenia. (Wolfe, Patricia, PhD. Brain Matters. Virginia: ASCD, 2001, pp 18-20)

Nicotine During Pregnancy

Studies: By ages 4 and 8, children born to mothers who smoked had IQs 4-5 points lower than the comparison group of children born to nonsmoking mothers. Nicotine-exposed children may have trouble performing basic tasks such as eye contact, sucking, and head turning. At school age they may be at risk for poor reading skills, attention deficits, and hyperactivity. (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, p 69)

Nutritional Neuroscience

Nutritional neuroscience is a new medical specialty that has shown how nutrients, vitamins, supplements, and other lifestyle factors can be utilized to increase brain power, achieve and maintain a happy state of mind, and prevent or reverse brain deterioration related to aging or neurological diseases. (Carper, Jean. Your Miracle Brain. NY: HarperCollins Publishers, 2000, p Xix)

Obesity

May have impaired hypothalamic function—is strongly correlated with consumption of processed, heat-and-eat meals, and junk foods. (Mapping the Mind. Rita Carter. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1998, p 66)

Both the obese and the anorexic are fighting battles for consciousness through food (e.g., rejection or acceptance of food). Food is a catalyst for almost any emotion. (Woodman, Marion. Addiction to Perfection: Toronto, Canada: Inner City Books, 1982, pp 21-23)

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

OCD:  A neuropsychiatric disease that involves intrusive unwanted thoughts that trigger intense urges for ritualistic behaviors. The behaviors are not “fun,” (in contrast to compulsive gambling or shopping). Can be deal with by following four steps. (Schwartz, Jeffrey M., MD, and Sharon Begley. The Mind & the Brain. NY Regan Books, 2002, pp 54-56, 239-242)

A different manifestation of the same underlying biological disturbance (as seen in Tourette’s). Too much dopamine seems to cause agitation and repetitive action. (Carter, Rita, Editor. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, pp 59, 66)

OCD can involve rituals or persistent thoughts. Summarizes recommended treatments for OCD. (Greenwood-Robinson, Maggie, PhD. 20/20 Thinking. NY: Avery, Putnam Special Markets, 2003, pp 334-335)

Describes this as an extreme example of an impulse to “control” the contents of one’s conscious thought in order to get things “right.” (Restak, Richard, MD. Mozart’s Brain and the Fighter Pilot. NY: Harmony Books, 2001, pp 73-74)

SPECT studies: OCD shoed increased blood flow in the cingulated system and increased activity in the basal ganglia. Treatment includes medication and behavioral therapy (e.g., whenever the thought occurs starting singing, or think a different thought) that may also include facing worst fear (e.g., fear of dirt so play in the mud). (Amen, Daniel G., MD. Change Your Brain Change Your Life. NY:Times Books, 1998, pp 156-160)

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Strep Throat

Streptococcal bacteria may lead to OCD in susceptible people. Antibodies may mistakenly attack cells in the basal ganglia, a group of small structures within the brain involved with voluntary movement, emotions, and thinking. (Greenwood-Robinson, Maggie, PhD. 20 / 20 Thinking. NY: Avery, Putnam Special Markets, 2003, p 260)

Obsessive-Compulsive Behavior

Excessively high serotonin levels result not in well-being, but in rigidity or obsessive-compulsive behavior, like Lady MacBeth’s repetitive hand washing. (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, p 44)

Omega-3 Acids

The brain is just over 60% fat and needs omega-3 acids to promote optimal brain performance. Some conditions (e.g., depression, ADHD, learning/behavioral disorders) are linked to a lack of omega-3 acids. (Gurian, Michael, PhD, and Patricia Henley, with Terry Trueman. Boys and Girls Learn Differently! CA: Jossey-Bass, 2001, pp 88-89)

Oniomania

Oniomania is the medical term for shopaholism. It is an addictive, obsessive disorder. Compulsive shoppers have been shown to be deficient in serotonin. (Lombard, Jay, Dr., and Dr. Christian Renna. Balance Your Brain, Balance Your life. NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2004, pp 82-83)

Organization

Many organizational tasks are actually handled by the right hemisphere (e.g., spatial relationships, how parts of things come together as a whole, if an object will fit in a specific box). (Bricklin, Mark, et al. Positive Living and Health. PA: Rodale Press, 1990, pp 50-52)

Panic Attacks

Panic attacks (and PTSD) may be a long-term result of disruption in the flow of information to and from the limbic system (refer to Depersonalization). Any memories filed may return only in the form of replication of the emotional state the person was in at the time of the event. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Exploring Consciousness. CA:  University of California Press, 1998, pp 264-267)

States that while panic is not very susceptible to medication it can be unlearned. Provides examples and strategies. (Seligman, Martin E P., PhD. What You Can Change…and What You Can’t. NY:  Fawcett Books, 1993, pp 5, 60-68)

Panic attacks and PTSD may be a late effect of one type of depersonalization during acute trauma. The emotional memory is formed in the limbic system, laid down without being bound to words. That type of memory may not have any describable content—rather a replay of the emotional state the person was in when the memory was stored. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Exploring Consciousness. CA: University of California Press, 1998, pp 264-267)

Panic Disorder

In panic disorder, fear is expressed in the form of discrete and sudden panic attacks that have no apparent relationship to any actual threat and often involves abnormal sensitivity to uncomfortable somatic sensations. (LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self, How Our Brains Become Who We Are. NY: Penguin Books, 2002, pp 293-296)

May involve an overactive amygdala or a chemical imbalance in the brain. There may be a genetic link since it tends to run in families. It may also be a symptom of an underlying disease (e.g., more than 40 diseases can trigger panic-like reactions). Summarizes recommended treatments. (Greenwood-Robinson, Maggie, PhD. 20/20 Thinking. NY: Avery, Putnam Special Markets, 2003, p 333)

In panic disorder, fear is expressed in the form of discrete and sudden panic attacks that have no apparent relationship to any actual threat and often involves abnormal sensitivity to uncomfortable somatic sensations. (LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self, How Our Brains Become Who We Are. NY: Penguin Books, 2002, pp 293-296)

Paramnesia

Paramnesia refers to a group of conditions involving memory distortion such as: false memory, déjà vu (already seen), jamais vu (never seen), and confabulation. Provides descriptions of each type. (Bragdon, Allen D., and David Gamon, PhD. Brains that Work a Little Bit Differently. NY:  Barnes and Noble Books, 2000, pp 52-56)

Paranoia

Paranoia is one of the symptoms of certain types of schizophrenia, which in turn is associated with fluctuations in dopamine, the neurotransmitter that activates the prefrontal cortex. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA:  University of California Press, 1998, p 101)

Imagination is the ability to consciously create a picture in your mind, repeat it, and have things turn out as imagined. It can for you or against you (e.g., being imaginative about fears can lead to paranoia). (Siebert, Al, PhD. The Survivor Personality. NY: A Perigee Book, 1996.)

Parkinson’s Disease

Involves the substantia nigra. Loss of dopamine neurons. Not a single root cause. May develop following trauma to head. (Greenfield, Susan, Con. Ed. Brain Power. Great Britain: Element Books Limited, 1999, p 140)

Too little dopamine is known to cause tremor and inability to start voluntary movement. (Mapping the Mind. Page 66. Rita Carter. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1998. ISBN # 0-520-22461-2, p 66)

Parkinson’s Disease and Pesticides

Garden (50% increased risk) or in-home pesticides (70% increased risk) have been associated with Parkinson’s disease. Rotenone, paraquat, and dieldrin have been shown to accelerate the rate of formation of alpha synuclein in the brain, and abnormalities of this protein have been linked to Parkinson’s disease. (Greenwood-Robinson, Maggie, PhD. 20 / 20 Thinking. NY: Avery, Putnam Special Markets, 2003, pp 216-217)

Pelizaeus-Merzbacher Disease (PMD)

Pelizaeus-Merzbacher Disease is caused by mutation in a gene that regulates production of myelin protein. It is a rare, degenerative disorder of the Central nervous system. Onset may occur in infancy and often results in death in early childhood. The milder, adult-onset form of PMD often involves spastic paraplegia. (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. NINDS Pelizaeus-Merzbacher Disease Information Page. http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/pelizaeus_merzbacher/pelizaeus_merzbacher.htm  Accessed 2007.)

Phantom Limb

Phantom limp is an unpleasant sensation of pain in a missing limb. Although this phenomenon is not clearly understood, it is as though the severed nerve endings in the limb stump send messages to the brain to create the illusion that the severed limb still exists. (Greenfield, Susan, Con. Ed. Brain Power, Working out the Human Mind. Great Britain: Element Books Limited, 1999, pp 70-71)

There is now evidence that when a limb is amputated, the area of the brain that was devoted to receiving sensory signals from the limb still activates. (Ratey, John J., MD. A User’s Guide to the Brain. NY: Vintage Books, 2002, pp 86-87)

Phenyl-ketonuria (PKU)

UF researchers: In the brains of mice with PKU, levels of phenylalanine are six times higher than levels found in healthy mice. The excess amino acid interferes with glutamate, a key brain cell chemical messenger, that plays a crucial role in brain development and function, and in cellular communication. (University of Florida; Health Science Center News. Article.)

Phobias

Description of phobia of heights and reversal, and phobia of snakes, and reversal. (Bandler, Richard, and John Grinder. Frogs into Princes. UT: Real People Press. 1979, pp 66-67)

Fear of a place, situation, or object. There are hundreds of different kinds of phobias and most people have at least one or two. Summarizes recommended treatments for phobias that interfere with and compromise daily living. (Greenwood-Robinson, Maggie, PhD. 20 / 20 Thinking. NY: Avery, Putnam Special Markets, 2003, pp 333-334)

Phobics are people who can learn something utterly ridiculous very quickly. Most people tend to look at a phobia as a problem rather than as an achievement. They never stop to think, “If she can learn to do that, then she should be able to learn to do anything.” (Bandler, Richard. Using Your Brain for a Change. Neuro-Linguistic Programming. UT:  Real People Press, 1985, p 46)

Discusses two behavior therapies for dealing with phobias:  an intense fear that is out of proportion to any real danger. Provides examples. (Seligman, Martin E P., PhD. What You Can Change…and What You Can’t. NY:  Fawcett Books, 1993, pp 75-83)

Some phobias originate as innately or maturational determined responses that are released in certain prone individuals at particular times in the person’s life. (Claridge, Gordon. Origins of Mental Illness. MA: Malor Book, 1995, pp 92-96)

Describes a phobia as a strategy that used to protect the person from something but that has become overgeneralized. There is always a secondary gain to the individual. (Bandler, Richard, and John Grinder. Reframing, Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning. UT: Real People Press, 1982, p 139)

Refer to Reframing (below) and Senses and the Brain.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

About 25% of people directly exposed to trauma develop PTSD. Studies: people who repetitively watched TV images of people falling or jumping from the twin towers were 6 times more likely to develop PTSD (22.5% versus 3.6% in people who did not watch TV). (Restak, Richard, MD. The New Brain. PA: Rodale, 2003, pp 77-79)

In PTSA, fear is expressed through an increased sensitivity to stimuli reminiscent of an original traumatic event, and include flashbacks and increased startle response. The prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and anygdala are thought to be altered in some way. (LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self, How Our Brains Become Who We Are. NY: Penguin Books, 2002, pp 293-296)

Individuals (regular soldiers) with PTDS have low levels of neuropeptide Y. Special Forces soldiers have higher levels of this substance in the CNS that appears to make them resistant to PTSD. (Perricone, Nicholas, MD. The Perricone Promise. NY: Warner Books, 2004, pp 28-30)

Problems in a condition such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, are an expression of traumatically encoded information at the cellular level. All of the information associated with the trauma is encoded at the cellular level. Through therapist if the cellular memory is connected with normal cognitive function the traumatic memory may be able to be therapeutically reframed. (McClaskey, D.C., C.H.T., B.C.E.T.S., Thomas R. Decoding Traumatic Memory Patterns at the Cellular Level. American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress. 2006. Article.)   

Psychotic

There is a difference between constitutionally determined “psychotic” nervous types and “neurotic” nervous types. (Claridge, Gordon. Origins of Mental Illness. MA: Malor Book, 1995, pp 174-208)

Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)

Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy is caused by a reaction to a common virus that destroys white matter, a component of myelin. This rare disease may occur in people who have AIDS or who have had an organ transplant, in recipients of immunosuppressive therapy, or in the presence of conditions such as Hodgkins’s disease, lymphoma, sarcoidosis. (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. NINDS Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy Disease Information Page. http://ninds.nih.gov/disorders/pml/pml.htm  Accessed 2007.)

Reframing

The term “functional autonomy” describes behaviors that continue long after they have any useful function for the person. Reframing can help one separate behaviors from their desired outcome. (Bandler, Richard, and John Grinder. Reframing, Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning. UT: Real People Press, 1982, p 139)

Retardation

Fetal alcohol syndrome from alcohol use alone is a major cause of retardation. Fetal alcohol exposure may be the single largest factor in setting up physical and neurological conditions that predispose American babies to aggressive and violent behavior. (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery, Tracing the Roots of Violence. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, p 62)

Reward Deficiency Syndrome

People with RDS (perhaps 1 in 4) seem unable to get enough of whatever it is they are hooked on: sex, food, risk, or drugs. A wide range of disorders can be clustered under its umbrella (e.g., mild anxiety, irritability or risk-taking to eating disorders, compulsive shopping and gambling, drug addiction and alcoholism. (Carter, Rita. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 63)

Schizophrenia

PET Scan studies: the frontal cortex remained inactive during schizophrenic hallucinations (the frontal cortex was very active in non-schizophrenic patients who were asked to imagine sounds). (Schwartz, Jeffrey M., MD, and Sharon Begley. The Mind & the Brain. NY Regan Books, 2002, pp 312-215)

Many people may have a genetic predisposition to schizophrenia (which involves alteration in functions of the temporal lobes and the amygdala) but never encounter the circumstances that trigger its expression. (Greenfield, Susan, Con. Ed. Brain Power, Working out the Human Mind. Great Britain: Element Books Limited, 1999, pp 122-130)

The emergence of schizophrenia disorders in adolescence has been correlated to children with low omega-3 acids. (Gurian, Michael, PhD, and Patricia Henley, with Terry Trueman. Boys and Girls Learn Differently! CA: Jossey-Bass, 2001, pp 88-89)

Schizophrenia is a family of conditions (not a single disorder) that can be manifested in different ways in different people. It afflicts about 1% of the population and is strongly tied to genetic factors (although it can be induced by environmental factors such as brain injury or infection). (LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self, How Our Brains Become Who We Are. NY: Penguin Books, 2002, pp 183, 267-273, 282-298)

Affects 1 in 100 people worldwide, more than 4 million Americans. Perhaps 1/3 of all homeless are schizophrenics. Women who have influenza during pregnancy are more likely to have a schizophrenic child. (Brynie, Faith Hickman. 101 Questions Your Brain Has Asked About Itself But Couldn’t Answer, Until Now. CT: Millbrook Press, 1998, p 88)

Too much dopamine may be involved in positive symptoms so-called (e.g., hallucinations, paranoia, delusions, agitations, hostility). Too little dopamine may be involved in negative symptoms (e.g., blunted emotions, loss of motivation, social isolation, poor hygiene, cognitive deficits in attention and working memory). (Carter, Rita. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, p 66)

Schizophrenia involves overactivity of the D2 receptors in the basal ganglia (e.g., positive symptoms), and underactivity of D1 receptors in the prefrontal cortex (e.g., negative symptoms). (LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self, How Our Brains Become Who We Are. NY: Penguin Books, 2002, pp 183, 267-273, 282-298)

Interesting discussion of schizophrenia and dispositions to illness. (Claridge, Gordon. Origins of Mental Illness. MA: Malor Book, 1995, pp 140-170)

The neurotransmitter dopamine is associated with schizophrenia. (Benson, Herbert, MD, with Marg Stark. Timeless Healing: The Power and Biology of Belief. NY: Scribner, 1996, pp 70-75)

Likely involves a genetic component, some neurotransmitter systems (dopamine, glutamate, serotonin, and abnormalities in the fat composition of cell membranes (e.g., defective antioxidant defenses allowing fat in brain cell membranes to be easily oxidized by free-radical attacks). (Carper, Jean. Your Miracle Brain. NY: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc., 2000, pp 88-90)

There is a splitting out of components of thoughts that wouldn’t normally be separated. Fragments of ideas and concepts may be associated together without logic or reason. Schizophrenics can form ideas and beliefs that normal people regard as bizarre and utterly unpredictable. (Greenfield, Susan, Con. Ed. Brain Power, Working out the Human Mind. Great Britain: Element Books Limited, 1999, pp 122-130)

Schizophrenics see patterns and motives out of only random events. (Quartz, Steven R., PhD, and Terrence J. Sejnowski, PhD. Liars, Lovers, and Heroes. NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2002, p 185)

Everyone hallucinates (e.g., hallucinate that another person is in a good mood or a bad mood when it may just be a response to your own internal state). Two distinctions between a normal person and an institutionalize schizophrenic: If you have a good reality strategy and whether the content of your hallucination is socially acceptable or not. (Bandler, Richard, and John Grinder. Frogs into Princes. UT: Real People Press. 1979, p 53)

Several brain regions and systems operate abnormally in schizophrenia. These can include Wernicke’s area, the Hippocampus, the frontal lobes, the limbic system, and the basal ganglia, to name some of them. In addition dopamine irregularities and/or glutamate irregularities may contribute to development of symptoms. (The Brain in Schizophrenia. Article.)

Approximately 50 % of individuals with schizophrenia and manic-depressive disorder, including those who have never been treated, have impaired awareness of their own illness (e.g., don’t realize they are sick and don’t usually not accept treatment voluntarily). This is probably related to decreased function of the prefrontal area. (Schizophrenia is a Disorder of the Brain. Article.)

May involve increased sensitivity to dopamine. The amount of dopamine may be normal but the number of receptors is abnormally high. The brain may not produce enough GABA. (Brynie, Faith Hickman. 101 Questions Your Brain Has Asked About Itself But Couldn’t Answer, Until Now. CT: Millbrook Press, 1998, p 88)

Errors in migration of neurons can show up later in conditions such as epilepsy, dyslexia, and perhaps schizophrenia. (Wolfe, Patricia, PhD. Brain Matters. Virginia: ASCD, 2001, pp 18-20)

PET Scans and fMRI Studies: structural brain changes in the prefrontal cortex and medial temporal lobe (hippocampus and anygdala), changes in the number of dopamine receptors in the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia, and anomalies in blood flood and/or neural activity in these regions. (LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self, How Our Brains Become Who We Are. NY: Penguin Books, 2002, pp 183, 267-273, 282-298)

Schizophrenia, Brain Waves

Harvard Psychiatry Department studies: Scientists have identified a fault in brain waves at a frequency called the gamma range (it cycles at between 30-100 brain waves per second) where healthy brains piece together perceptions. It may mean that schizophrenics have a decreased deficiency of communication between brain areas. (Young, Stacey. Schizophrenia Brain Waves. October 2004. Article.)

Schizophrenia and Flu Virus

Schizophrenia may be caused by prenatal exposure to the flu virus during the second trimester of pregnancy. This environmentally induced genetic alternation may also produce an increased risk of violent behavior in subsequent generations. (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery, Tracing the Roots of Violence. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, p 80)

Exposure to flu virus during gestation has been associated with shrinkage of the cortex, thalamus, and basal ganglia, along with an increased risk of developing schizophrenia in early adulthood. (Greenwood-Robinson, Maggie, PhD. 20/20 Thinking. NY: Avery, Putnam Special Markets, 2003, p 260)

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

The production of melatonin can be thrown off during winter months when amount of daylight decreases, especially in northern regions. This can trigger a form of depression known as SAD, Seasonal Affective Disorder. Along with other typical symptoms of depression, people with SAD tend to eat and sleep more. Exposure to “full-spectrum lighting” has been used successfully to treat this type of depression. (Giuffre, Kenneth, MD., with Teresa Foy DiGeronimo. The Care and Feeding of Your Brain. NJ:Career Press, 1999)

Study: Small amounts of melatonin taken twice a day appeared to reduce wintertime depression. (Greenwood-Robinson, Maggie, PhD. 20 / 20 Thinking. NY: Avery, Putnam Special Markets, 2003, pp 200-210)

People suffering from SAD, which typically occurs during winter months, may have very low levels of Melatonin. (Discover Color Therapy. Helen Graham. Ulysses Press, (Berkeley CA) 1998, p 15)

Studies: Symptoms of SAD in children may include fatigue, sadness (rather than depression), and irritability. (Ornstein, Robert, PhD, and David Sobel, MD. Healthy Pleasures. MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1989, p 257)

Melatonin is likely the substance that aggravates sluggishness and depression in people who have SAD. (Hafen, Brent Q., et al. Mind/Body Health. MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1996, pp 222-224)

Yale University Studies: Melatonin (responsible for sleepy feelings) is suppressed when light interacts with the retina, brain, and special sympathetic nerves. Light is connected to SAD, PMS, and Carbohydrate cravings. (Colby, Barbara, ASID. Color & Light: Influences and Impact. CA: Barbara Colby, 1990, p 41)

Seizures, Musicogenic

Refer to Music and the Brain for additional information

Senile Brain Syndrome

Senility is a brain disorder that rarely occurs before age seventy. Senility is found more often in women than in men. (Stump, Jane Barr, PhD. What’s the Difference? NY: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1985, p 175)

Sensation Alteration

The sensory areas of the parietal lobes are where the more complex analysis and integration of sensation occur. Damage to these areas (e.g., tumor, stroke) can result in people “losing” half of their body (the half opposite to the injured side of the brain). (Greenfield, Susan, Con. Ed. Brain Power, Working out the Human Mind. Great Britain: Element Books Limited, 1999, pp 70-71)

Serotonin (also refer to Suicide)

Neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus (brain stem) produce serotonin. They have long projections that carry the neurotransmitter to the orbital prefrontal cortex. In suicide victims, the dorsal raphe nucleus sends less than normal amounts of serotonin to the orbital prefrontal cortex. (Why? The Neuroscience of Suicide. Carol Ezzell. Scientific American, February 2003. Scientific American Inc, NY. ISSN # 0036-8733, pp 45-51)

Sensory Epilepsy

A condition where the person experiences brief episodes of altered sensation, usually down one side of the body; and some forms characteristically start with the hallucination of a strange, and usually unpleasant, smell. (Greenfield, Susan, Con. Ed. Brain Power, Working out the Human Mind. Great Britain: Element Books Limited, 1999, pp 70-71)

Sex

Refer to Sex and the Brain for additional information

Sleep Apnea

The individuals falls asleep and stops breathing…but the lower brain jars the person awake to breathe again until he/she falls back asleep. (Pearsall, Paul, PhD. The Heart’s Code. NY: Broadway Books, 1998, p 24-25)

Sociopath

Estimates: sociopaths form 1-4% of the population and about 20% of the prison population. may be insensitive to the threat of punishment. Many were abused as children. To cope, many never learned to empathize with pain and suffering of others and are insensitive to threat of punishment. Brain scans showed an 11% reduction in prefrontal gray matter volume compared with the control group. (Quartz, Steven R., PhD, and Terrence J. Sejnowski, PhD. Liars, Lovers, and Heroes. NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2002, pp 301-303)

Excessive shame results in hypoarousal, the opposite of excitement and playfulness. If synapses in the brain are never built due to neglect, or destroyed by neurochemicals resulting from chronic stress, the individual may be left without the ability to connect, trust, or experience empathy (e.g., extreme instances may result in sociopathy). (Karr-Morse, Robin, and Meredith S. Wiley. Ghosts from the Nursery. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997, pp 197-198)

Sperm Counts, Low

Males with low sperm count may have correspondingly low levels of melatonin. (Graham, Helen. Discover Color Therapy. CA: Ulysses Press, 1998, p 15)

Spina Bifida

Studies: there is a clear correlation between an insufficient intake of folic acid and a high incidence of spina bifida. (Ratey, John J., MD. A User’s Guide to the Brain. NY: Vintage Books, 2002, p 29)

Split-Brain Surgery

Since the right hand is under the control of the left hemisphere, and the left hand of the right hemisphere, the normal integration of motor control is stopped when the corpus callosum is severed (e.g. to prevent seizures from moving into the other hemisphere). (LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self. NY: Penguin Books, 2002, pp 305-307)

Stammering

Study: Pattern of stammering is encoded in the left hemisphere, singing is primarily encoded in the right hemisphere. Some stammerers can sing sentences when they cannot speak them easily. (Storr, Anthony. Music and the Mind. NY: Ballantine Books, 1992, pp 36-37)

Stress

Refer to Stress and the Brain for additional information.

Stanford studies: stress can exacerbate existing brain diseases (e.g., strokes, epilepsy, Alzheimers, AIDS dementia). (Diamond, Marian, PhD, and Janet Hopson. Magic Trees of the Mind. NY: A Dutton Book 1998, pp 80-82)

Stroke

When a stroke affects one hemisphere, typical suppression of activity in the mirror-image region on the other side is lifted, if the affected limb is stimulated by sustained and repeated movements. (Schwartz, Jeffrey M., MD, and Sharon Begley. The Mind & the Brain. NY Regan Books, 2002, pp 192-194)

Left: controls right side of the body (e.g., left-hemisphere stroke can cause right-leg paralysis). Right: controls left side of the body (e.g., right-hemisphere stroke can cause speech problems). (Newsletter. On the Brain. CA: 2005, pp 2-3) www.PositScience.com

Overactivity of glutamate (the main transmitter in projection neurons that helps to detoxify ammonia) during a stroke can result in injury to neurons, (as well as in epilepsy and possibly Alzheimer’s disease). Also refer to Monosodium Glutamate. (LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self, How Our Brains Become Who We Are. NY: Penguin Books, 2002, pp 53-56)

Stuttering

About one child in four will stutter between ages of two and seven, but 80% stop before they reach adulthood. Affects four times as many males as females. It may also involve a fault of incorrect hearing. (Brynie, Faith Hickman. 101 Questions Your Brain Has Asked About Itself But Couldn’t Answer, Until Now. CT: Millbrook Press, 1998, p 134)

Suicide

The brains of those who died by suicide, showed anatomical and chemical changes in the orbital prefrontal cortex (just above eyes), and the dorsal raphe nucleus (brain stem). There is a reduced ability to make and use serotonin. Inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin (Prozac) isn’t always enough to prevent suicide. (Ezzell, Carol. Why? The Neuroscience of Suicide. NY: Scientific American, Feb 2003, pp 45-51)

Suicide is maladaptive, although the brain is set up for possible depression when a love affair fails. Romantic love is associated with high levels of dopamine and norepinephrine that can cause serotonin to fall. Low levels of serotonin are associated with suicide. (Fisher, Helen, PhD. Why We Love. NY: Henry Holt and Company, 2004, pp 175-180)

Television

Television tends to engage the right cerebral hemisphere. Like computers, it uses several attributes (images, backlit screens, and speed) that tend to engage the right cerebral hemisphere and generate emotional involvement…in contrast to words (especially words employed in business communications) that involve the left cerebral hemisphere. (Restak, Richard, MD. Mozart’s Brain and the Fighter Pilot. NY: Harmony Books, 2001, pp 136-137)

Television and Aggression

Thinking aggressive thoughts can alter blood flow to the brain and control over angry impulses. Adolescents and young adults who watched more than 7 hours of television per week were more likely to commit an aggressive or violent act in later years. (Restak, Richard, MD. The New Brain. PA: Rodale, 2003, pp 82-83)

Temporal Lobe Epilepsy

A disorder that may lead to hypergraphia and hyper-religious feelings. (Shreeve, James. Beyond the Brain. National Geographic, Vol. 207, No. 3, March, 2005, pp 28-29)

Therapy

Therapy is a synaptic adjustment process. Medication may address the problem from the bottom up, the therapist from the outside in, and the patient from his/her own synaptic self. (LeDoux, Joseph. Synaptic Self, How Our Brains Become Who We Are. NY: Penguin Books, 2002, pp 299-300)

Tinnitus

A condition that leads to persistent ringing, buzzing or humming sounds in the ears. There is no cure yet. Some find comfort in listening to tapes of soothing sounds, such as waves at the seashore, that allow them to focus on something other than the sounds in their ears. (Ratey, John J., MD. A User’s Guide to the Brain. NY: Vintage Books, 2002, pp 88-90)

Tourette’s Syndrome

The brain can change through conscious use of mindfulness so that the person responds to his/her thoughts in a different manner. (Schwartz, Jeffrey M., MD, and Sharon Begley. The Mind & the Brain. NY Regan Books, 2002, pp 225-254)

Brain scan studies:  people with Tourette’s syndrome showed significant lack of activity in three left-hemisphere brain areas. Lack of activity in these areas allowed inappropriate fragments of actions (e.g., tics). Too much dopamine may trigger uncontrolled speech and movement. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, pp 57, 66)

NIMH studies1996:  unusually high level of activity of dopamine in the caudate nucleus of the brain, an area that governs automatic behavior, is associated with Tourette’s Syndrome. (Brynie, Faith Hickman. 101 Questions Your Brain Has Asked About Itself But Couldn’t Answer, Until Now. CT: Millbrook Press, 1998, p 92)

A rare neurological disorder that is most common in male children between the ages of 2-15. Although it is chronic, it is not a degenerative disease, and a normal life span is possible. Characterized by involuntary muscular movements, uncontrollable vocal sounds, and verbal outbursts. (Stump, Jane Barr, PhD. What’s the Difference? NY: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1985, p 204)

Trauma

As many as 99% of individuals who develop dissociate identity disorder have documented histories of severe and prolonged trauma during childhood….Temperament styles perhaps also contribute to differences in the way children react to a challenging environment: one may be resilient, the other vulnerable. (Quartz, Steven R., PhD, and Terrence J. Sejnowski, PhD. Liars, Lovers, and Heroes. NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2002, p 198)

Trauma and Memory

Unconscious memories are particularly likely to be formed during stressful events because the hormones and neurotransmitters released at such times make the amygdalae more excitable. They also affect the processing of conscious memories. (Carter, Rita, Ed. Mapping the Mind. CA: University of California Press, 1998, pp 95-96)

Violence

Refer to Violence and the Brain for additional information

Violent Images

The brain hemispheres remain in balance when encountering images of positive or emotionally neutral scenes. Activity shifts toward the right hemisphere with images of death, horror, carnage, suffering, or injury; it can become overwhelmed and dysfunctional. Watching pictures of a disaster has a more powerful effect on mental stability than reading about it. (Restak, Richard, MD. The New Brain. PA: Rodale, 2003, pp 71-74)

Visions and Voices

Voices, visions, and other hallucinatory effects that often possess religious connotations, can be triggered by schizophrenia and temporal lobe epilepsy. (Newberg, Andrew, MD, et al. Why God Won’t Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief. NY: Ballantine Books, 2001, pp 107-108)

Visual, Nonverbal Tasks

Right temporal-lobe injury is associated with impaired performance on a variety of visual, nonverbal tasks (e.g., patients with epileptogenic lesions of the right temporal lobe are slow and inaccurate in detecting incongruities in sketchy, cartoon-like drawing). Patients with left temporal-lobe lesions do not have these perceptual difficulties. (Pribram, K. H., ed. Brain and Behavior 2, Perception and Action. Britain: Penguin Books Inc., 1969, p 319)